In 2024, the United States did not produce any germanium from primary refining sources. However, germanium was indirectly produced as a byproduct from zinc mining operations. A mine in Alaska produced zinc concentrates containing germanium, but these materials were largely exported to a refinery in Canada, where germanium was extracted in the form of germanium dioxide and germanium tetrachloride. This reflects a common practice in U.S. mineral resource management, where critical mineral production is often outsourced due to limited domestic refining infrastructure.
Another historically important site, a mine in Tennessee, remained suspended throughout 2024. Prior to the suspension, the Tennessee operation supplied germanium-bearing zinc concentrates to a smelter in Clarksville, which processed them into an intermediate leach concentrate for export. The ongoing shutdown of this site limited the domestic availability of germanium from primary sources.
While there is no active domestic primary refining of germanium, the United States does engage in value-added processing. A facility in St. George, Utah, produced germanium wafers, primarily for use in space-based solar cells. These wafers are manufactured from both imported germanium and recycled scrap. Meanwhile, a facility in Quapaw, Oklahoma, produced germanium tetrachloride, a compound essential to the fiber optics industry. Like the Utah facility, this operation relied on imported and recycled materials. These facilities are crucial to maintaining domestic capabilities in high-tech applications, despite the absence of a primary production base.
Germanium supply in the United States is heavily dependent on foreign imports. In 2024, imports were estimated at 20,000 kilograms for germanium metal and 13,000 kilograms for germanium dioxide. These figures are slightly down from the 2023 peaks but still significantly higher than in earlier years, reflecting stable but elevated demand. Export figures show a smaller outbound flow, with 7,200 kilograms of germanium metal and 120 kilograms of germanium dioxide exported during the same year.
Between 2020 and 2023, the leading sources of germanium metal imports to the United States were China, which supplied 51 percent; Belgium, at 27 percent; and Germany, at 15 percent. For germanium dioxide, the majority of imports came from Belgium and Canada, with Belgium alone providing 53 percent and Canada 41 percent. When combining all forms of germanium, Belgium, China, and Canada emerged as the top trading partners. These figures highlight the United States’ dependence on geopolitical relationships and foreign mining capacity for access to this essential material.
Net import reliance for germanium consistently exceeded 50 percent, demonstrating the vulnerability of the U.S. supply chain. In times of international tension, export restrictions especially from countries like China, a dominant player in the global germanium market can pose significant risk to downstream industries that rely on the mineral.
In 2024, germanium prices saw a sharp increase. The average price of germanium metal reached $2,100 per kilogram, up from $1,392 the previous year. Germanium dioxide followed a similar trend, rising from $883 per kilogram in 2023 to $1,400 in 2024. These price increases are likely driven by several factors, including restricted supply due to mine suspensions, increased global demand for fiber optics and solar technologies, and heightened geopolitical uncertainty surrounding critical mineral exports.
Higher prices reflect the tightening of supply chains and increasing competition for materials used in high-tech and defense-related applications. Germanium’s role in infrared optics, night vision systems, and satellite components gives it strategic importance that can drive price volatility during periods of heightened global demand or political instability.
Despite limited primary production, the United States benefits from a relatively strong recycling infrastructure for germanium. Recovered germanium plays a vital role in supplementing supply, especially given the high value of the material and the technical applications it supports.
Germanium is routinely recycled from manufacturing scrap, particularly during the production of infrared optics. Germanium lenses and windows from decommissioned military equipment are also reclaimed, as are germanium-containing materials used in the manufacture of optical fibers. Additionally, spent germanium wafers used in satellite solar cells are collected and refined. These recycling streams represent an important form of secondary production, although exact figures for recovered germanium are not publicly available due to inadequate data reporting.
The lack of reliable statistics on secondary germanium production presents a challenge in fully assessing the nation's self-sufficiency. However, the presence of recycling operations in the U.S. reduces dependency to a degree and supports circular economy initiatives.
The National Defense Stockpile continued to manage its germanium holdings in 2024, with no new acquisitions planned for the fiscal year. However, the government authorized the potential disposal of 5,000 kilograms of germanium in both fiscal years 2024 and 2025. This suggests that current stockpile levels are considered sufficient to meet emergency or defense-related needs, and that active intervention in the commercial market is not presently necessary.
The stockpile serves as a buffer against supply chain disruptions and is a critical tool for national security. The decision to release material, rather than acquire more, may also reflect confidence in the availability of imports and recycling, although it raises questions about future preparedness in the face of rising demand and potential global shortages.
The state of germanium in the United States in 2024 reveals a complex mix of strengths and vulnerabilities. While the country lacks primary production capabilities, it maintains essential value-added processing operations and an active recycling sector. Imports continue to meet the majority of domestic demand, making the U.S. highly susceptible to changes in global supply dynamics, especially considering the concentration of germanium production in politically sensitive regions.
Rising prices, steady demand from defense and high-tech industries, and increasing global competition all underscore the strategic importance of germanium. Going forward, efforts to strengthen domestic capabilities whether through restarting suspended mining operations, increasing investment in recycling technologies, or diversifying import sources will be essential to ensuring supply chain resilience and national security.